Neuropsychology: Overview, Applications and Analysis

Neuropsychology: Overview, Applications and Analysis Neuropsychology, the Newest Tool in Psychology Neuropsychology Andrew Davis Table of Contents (Jump to) 1) An Introduction 2) Neuropsychology as a new field 2.1) Key terms in Neuropsychology Clinical Neuropsychology Experimental Neuropsychology Cognitive Neuropsychology 2.2) the role that Neuropsychology plays 3) The history of Neuropsychology 4) The difference between fields related to Neuropsychology 5) Neuropsychology in South Africa 6) Relevance of Neuropsychology for Counsellors 7) Conclusion The author’s brain, and his thought processes Reference List 1) An Introduction Humans resist change. Humans resist the new. It is with the above mantra in mind, this text will explore Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is one of the newest disciplines inside psychology, and therefore subject to wariness if not revulsion by those involved in psychology, due almost solely on its newness. Registered Counsellors in South Africa face an interesting dilemma – in an effort to be as effective as possible Neuropsychology must be utilized, however, its newness creates a problem. Re-educating counsellors costs time and money in a nation that cannot afford it, but not doing so leads to an almost unethical practice of wilfully excluding the usage of a tool that aids in one’s work. It is with this in mind that this text aims to provide an exploration of Neuropsychology in the following categories; Neuropsychology as a new field, important terminology in this field, the role that it plays, the history of Neuropsychology in short, differentiation of Neuropsychology and related disciplines, and finally an exploration of Neuropsychology within South Africa and its relevance to Registered Counsellors. A representation of the author’s brain and mental processes will also be included. 2) Neuropsychology as a new field Neuropsychology is a new field –even when compared to Psychology itself, a science that has only formally existed for little compared to other medical sciences- and so is associated with much confusion. An excellent and concise definition is that Neuropsychology is, â€Å"the scientific investigation of cognition, that is, of all mental abilities: perception, attention, learning, memory, processing of spoken and written language, thinking, reasoning and belief formation† (Coltheart, 2002:139). There are several terms in Neuropsychology that must be known. 2.1) Key terms in Neuropsychology As with most fields of science, there are numerous technical concepts and terms. The following terms are important if one wishes to become familiar at Neuropsychology, but pale in comparison to the more technical terms that a Neuropsychologists Clinical Neuropsychology Clinical Neuropsychology, â€Å"[I]s a specialty in professional psychology that applies principles of assessment and intervention based upon the scientific study of human behaviour [sic] as it relates to normal and abnormal functioning of the central nervous system† (American Psychological Association, 2010). Clinical Neuropsychologists are pre-occupied with normality and abnormity of the brain and spine with regards to psychological (mental) functioning, and how to correct the abnormal. This is the branch of Neuropsychology most involved in psychological illness and damage. Experimental Neuropsychology Experimental Neuropsychology is occupied with the researching of cognition and behaviour (All Psychology Careers, n.d.). As with all science, Experimental Neuropsychology provides the research, studies, and empirical observations that validate the theory throughout psychology as a whole. Experimental Neuropsychology is therefore of paramount importance in Neuropsychology, as it provides the basis for theories. Cognitive Neuropsychology Cognitive Neuropsychology is focused on hew the specifics of the brains form and functions translates into mental (psychological) processes. 2.2) the role that Neuropsychology plays 3) The history of Neuropsychology Although the relation between the mind and a ‘thinking-organ’ (once thought of the heart, but many times as the brain) and behaviour, cognition, and emotion have been known and explored for millennia, from philosophers, holy men, and apothecaries, to physicians and healers (Stanley, 2000) it is only since the middle of the nineteenth-century that Neuropsychology has been scientifically defined (Hallett, n.d.). The now famous Broca, Wernicke, and Dax were the first to observe an empirical link between damage to specific areas of the brain and the disruption of speech (as well as comprehension of speech (Hallett, n.d.,; Banich Compton, 2011). Once empirical science was first used it has become both the de jure and the de facto means in which theory and practice regarding Neuropsychology have been linked. No longer did theory disregard observation. Due to the limitation of equipment, there was little progress in Neuropsychology until the development of brain-imaging technology, as only autopsies could conclusively be used to observe most types of brain damage. This technological disadvantage acted in conjunction with the rise of the behavioural perspective of Psychology to place Neuropsychology out of favour (Coltheart,2008) . Once magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was invented – followed quickly by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)- was developed, the cognitive sciences advanced again, thus allowing the activity of the brain to be viewed while the observed was conscious and thinking, or moving. This allowed real-time comparison between the brain, thoughts and actions (All Psychology Careers, n.d. 2) 4) The difference between fields related to Neuropsychology There is a large amount of overlap with Neuropsychology and the medical (more physically minded) cognitive sciences. These differences must be known so as to avoid confusion. Cognitive Neuroscience, is different from Neuropsychology in that although the two disciples are involved in brain-damage and the information related to it, Cognitive Neuroscience focuses on the underlying neural mechanism that lies below cognition (Daniel, 2000) Cognitive Science, is different from Neuropsychology 5) Neuropsychology in South Africa South Africa has an independent institution regarding Neuropsychology, the South African Clinical Neuropsychological Association (SACNA) which aims to, â€Å"promote and stimulate interest in the field of neuropsychology, while maintaining standards in neuropsychological practice. This is achieved by ensuring that its full members have demonstrated knowledge and competence in the field, by way of examination and peer review† (SACNA, n.d.). The organization’s website provides links for psychologists to become part of the organization and all the benefits that it entails, as well as provide educational workshops (SACNA, n.d.). The website also provides a means to â€Å"find† a Neuropsychologist (SACNA, n.d.). South Africa’s status as a developing nation translates into a lack of funding for social services, as well as a lack of disposable income to pay for services. Therefore, the number of specialists such as Neuropsychologists is low, but the number of Registered Counsellors is higher, but still low compared to the ideal – an ideal where there was never a lack of mental health experts for those in need. 6) Relevance of Neuropsychology for Counsellors In the South African context, registered counsellors act within the role of gatekeepers to psychological support. In short, if a counsellor cannot support a client due to the client presenting issues and problems outside of the limited remit of counselling, the counsellor will then decide who to refer their clients to so that experts in specific psychological fields. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that counsellors be educated with enough of these more specialist fields so that a full decision on referral is made with the fullest amount of knowledge to back it. As counsellors act as ‘gatekeepers’, specialists are kept protected from overwork. This is due to the fact that a lower bar of entry (not necessarily a negative thing) for counsellors translates to there being a larger number than more specialist psychological health professionals – who are fewer in number, and able to treat few people. 7) In conclusion Neuropsychology is an interesting and powerful new part that resides in Psychology as a whole, but is related to Cognitive Neuroscience, Cognitive Science in a way that bridges the physical and the mental. It is the bridge that connects two, once separate, worlds. Neuropsychology is not only the domain of expert specialists, but should also count all mental health professionals as part of it. Due to the relatively tiny amount of Neuropsychological specialists registered counsellors must act as gatekeepers – referring those who require Neuropsychological aid to Neuropsychologists, and referring or keeping those who require different help. The author’s brain, and his thought processes Reference List All Psychology Careers. (n.d. 1). What is Experimental Neuropsychology?. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http://www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/experimental-neuropsychology.html All Psychology Careers. (n.d. 2). Cognitive Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http://www.allpsychologycareers.com/topics/cognitive-neuropsychology.html American Psychological Association. (2010). Clinical Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/neuro.aspx Banich, M.T., Compton, R.J. (2011). Cognitive Neuroscience: International edition (Third ed.).Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Coltheart, M. (2002). Cognitive neuropsychology. In Wixted, J. (Ed.) Stevens Handbook of Experimental Psychology, Third Edition Volume 4: Methodology. John Wiley Sons, pp 139-174. Coltheart, M. (2008). Cognitive neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Cognitive_neuropsychology Daniel, L.S. (2000). Understanding Implicit memory: A cognitive neuroscience approach. In Gazzaniga, M.S. Cognitive Neuroscience: A Reader. Wiley Hallett, S. (n.d.). Neuropsychology. Retrieved 6 April, 2015 from http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/semBasNeuro_chapter5.pdf SACNA. ( n.d.). South African Clinical Neuropsychological Association. Retrieved 5 April, 2015 from http://www.sacna.co.za/ Stanley, F. (2000). Minds behind the Brain: A history of the pioneers and their discoveries. London: Oxford University Press.

Regression Analysis and Marks

BRUNEL UNIVERSITY Master of Science Degree examination Specimen Exam Paper 2005-2006 EC5002: Modelling Financial Decisions and Markets EC5030: Introduction to Quantitative Methods Time allowed: 1. 5 hours Answer all of question 1 and at least two other questions 1. COMPULSORY Provide brief answers to all the following: (a) A sample of 20 observations corresponding to the model: Y = + X + u, gave the P P P following data: (X X)2 = 215:4, (Y Y )2 = 86:9, and (X X)(Y Y ) = 106:04. Estimate . 5 marks) (b) Prove that r2 = byx bxy , where byx is the least-squares (LS) slope in the regression of Y on X , bxy is the LS slope in the regression of X on Y , and r is the coe? cient of correlation between X and Y . (5 marks) (c) Present four alternative in†¡ ation/unemployment regressions. (5 marks) (d) Give one reason for autocorrelated disturbances. (5 marks) (e) Explain how we might use the Breusch-Godfrey statistic to test estimated residuals for serial correlation. (5 marks) (f) The fol lowing regression equation is estimated as a production function for Q: lnQ = 1:37 + 0:632 lnK + 0:452 lnL, cov(bk ; bl ) = 0:055; 0:257) (0:219) where the standard errors are given in parentheses. Test the hypothesis that capital (K ) and labor (L) elasticities of output are identical. (5 marks) Continued (Turn over) 1 ANSWER TWO QUESTIONS FROM THE FOLLOWING: 2. (a) Economic theory supplies the economic interpretation for the predicted relationships between nominal (in†¡ ation) uncertainty, real (output growth) uncertainty, output growth, and in†¡ ation. Discuss †¦ve testable hypotheses regarding bidirectional causality among these four variables. (25 marks) + yt b) An investigator estimates a linear relation for German output growth (yt ): yt = 1 + ut , t = 1850; : : : ; 1999. The values of †¦ve test statistics are shown in Table 1: Discuss the results. Is the above equation correctly speci†¦ed? (10 marks) 3. (a) i) Show how various examples of typical hyp otheses †¦t into a general linear framework: Rb = r, where R is a (q k) matrix of known constants, with q < k, b is the (k 1) least-squares vector, and r is a q -vector of known constants. ii) Show how the least-squares estimator (b) of about . an be used to test various hypotheses iii) â€Å"The test procedure is then to reject the hypothesis Rb = r if the computed F value exceeds a preselected critical value† Discuss. (20 marks) (b) The results of least-squares estimation (based on 30 quarterly observations) of the regression of the actual on predicted interest rates (three-month U. S. Treasury Bills) were as follows: rt = 0:24 + 0:94 rt + et ; RSS = 28:56; (0:86) (0:14) where rt is the observed interest rate, and rt is the average expectation of rt held at the end of the preceding quarter.FiguresX parentheses are estimated standard errors. in X (rt r )2 = 52. The sample data on r give rt =30 = 10, According to the rational expectations hypothesis expectations are unbi ased, that is, the average prediction is equal to the observed realization of the variable under investigation. Test this claim by reference to announced predictions and to actual values of the rate of interest on three-month U. S. Treasury Bills. (Note: In the above equation all the assumptions of the classical linear regression model are satis†¦ed). 15 marks) Continued (Turn over) 2 4. (a) What are the assumptions of the classical linear regression model? (10 marks) (b) Prove that the variance-covariance matrix of the (k 1) least-squares vector b is: var(b) = 2 (X 0 X) 1 , where 2 is the variance of the disturbances and X is the (n k) matrix of the regressors. (15 marks) b (c) In the two-variable equation: Yi = a+bXi , i = 1; : : : ; n show that cov(a; b) = 2 X= X)2 . (10 marks) X (X 5. (a) Explain how we might use White statistic to test for the presence of heteroscedasticity in the estimated residuals. 10 marks) (b) A speci†¦ed equation is Y = X +u, with E(u) = 0 and E (uu0 ) = ; where =diagf 2 ; : : : ; 1 Derive White’ correct estimates of the standard errors of the OLS coe? cients. s (15 marks) (c) Explain how we might test for ARCH e ¤ects? (10 marks) 2 2g . 3 Table 1. Test statistic Value of the test p-value White heteroscedasticity test 50. 72 0. 00 Box-Pierce Statistic on 82. 263 0. 00 Squared Residuals Jarque-Bera statistic 341. 754 0. 00 ARCH test 65. 42 0. 00 Ramsey test statistic 39. 74 0. 00 4

The changes in the global pattern of tourism

The global pattern of tourism has changed drastically over the last fifty years. Changes such as the number of global tourist arrivals, distances travelled, and the cost of travel have meant that ‘tourism' is today one of the world's most important industries. There are a number of reasons for this change, for example, technology and social situation. In the seventeenth century, doctors recommended benefits of water, which triggered the building of spas. People began taking relaxing trips to these spas. When the industrial revolution struck, huge changes in transport took place, such as better rail links in the United Kingdom. These railway lines provided links to expand. Also, people began to earn more money, and with disposable income, annual holidays became increasingly popular. During World War 2, people were not allowed on beaches. Once the war had finished, people celebrated by going to the beach. This made seaside resorts become much more popular. In 1970, the jet plane carried 307 million passengers. By 2006, this had increased to a huge 2. billion! This shows just how much tourism has increased in the past half century. In 1950, international tourist arrivals were only 20 million. In 2005, it was measured to be over 700 million! Europe in particular was responsible for a considerable amount of this increase, approximately 400 million. In 2005, there were 441,528 thousand international tourist arrivals. The Mediterranean was responsible for 36% of this number. This shows that southern Spain is a very popular tourist destination. I think this is due to the climate in the Med. The Mediterranean is well known for its hot, dry summers, which naturally attract visitors. Most arrivals here are on holiday for leisure purposes, rather than business. It is not just in Europe, however, that tourism has increased. In 1990, the world saw 439 million international tourist arrivals. In 2005, this has increased to 806 million. This shows an average annual increase of 3. 3%. There are many reasons for this increase. Economic factors, such as rising incomes, decreasing costs of the flight itself – due to the expansion of budget airlines. Also, many airlines have introduced reward schemes, or loyalty bonuses, which are appealing to the customer. Social factors, such as the increase of the number of days paid leave workers can take. This gives people more spare time for a holiday. Many students in recent years, after finishing school, which to take a ‘gap year' to go travelling, before going to university, or getting a job. Finally, there are also political reasons for which tourism has increased. Some governments invest heavily in advertising campaigns to encourage tourism. Also, international sporting events, such as the world cup or the Olympics, attract millions of people from all over the globe. Forecasts from the World Tourism Organisation are showing an approximate 650 million increase in global arrivals between 2007 and 2020. Another noticeable change is the distance people are travelling to go on holiday. In 1841, Thomas cook introduce the first ever package holiday, from Leicester to Loughborough, which was only 12 miles away. These travellers attended temperance meetings. Fifty years ago, tourist arrivals in the Middle East and Africa were virtually none existent, as the travel links simply were not there. I believe one of the main reasons that tourist arrivals have gone up so considerably is due to the travel links expanding. Thanks to the invention of the train, Thomas Cook was able to expand his holidays. However, in 1970, with the invention of the jet plane, mass tourism began. There was no limit to where people could go on holiday, so the distances travelled dramatically increased here. People travel to places such as Spain, specifically the Mediterranean, as it is only 725 miles, which is approximately a 2 hour flight. Today; people can travel literally across the world, from London to Sydney, a distance of 10,552 miles. The third main change in the pattern of tourism over the last fifty years is the cost of travel. People first began taking holidays after the industrial revolution, as they had disposable income. Although prices for travel such as trains were cheaper in the 1950's, people have a much higher income in today's society, so they are much more affordable. In the early 1990's, the first budget airline was introduced. They offered low cost flights in exchange for passenger services, such as in-flight meals and extra leg room. This appealed to many working class people, who wished to go on holiday for less. Flights on budget airlines can be extremely cheap, especially if you fly on an unpopular time and date. You can purchase some flights from the UK to Ireland as cheap as 1p plus VAT. Return flights to Spain can be as cheap as i20. Package holidays also made holidays more appealing to people who were not as well off as some. They combine the cost of flight, accommodation and travel, and are usually with a group of several other tourists. Package holidays range from your typical relaxing fortnight on the beach in Majorca, to cockroach races in Brisbane! At the story bridge hotel in Brisbane, every January 26th, they race cockroaches! This tradition began in 1981, when to drunken men argued that the cockroaches from their part of town were fastest. Today, people literally come from all over the world just to race there cockroaches! Also, many people today choose to go on â€Å"all inclusive† holidays. This is when the holiday resort provides all food and drink in the price. This is appealing to people as when on holiday, many people do not wish to cook or worrying about finding places to eat. All inclusive holidays start from just i290 to Ibiza; this makes luxury more affordable for the working class. Recently, ecotourism has become more popular. This is when people travel to less economically developed countries such as Kenya, or India. They volunteer once in the country, often doing conservation work. Flights to these areas are not very expensive, as they are less popular. Fifty years ago, few people travelled far to go on holiday, as it was so expensive. Overall, these are the three key changes in the pattern of tourism. A dramatic increase in the number of global tourist arrivals, an increase in the distance travelled, and cost of travel being more affordable, have meant that tourism is very different today than it was fifty years ago. I feel that the main catalyst for increasing tourism in general, was the invention of the jet plane. Carrying 2. 1 billion passengers in 2006, it is clearly responsible for a large part of transporting these tourists. Of course, another reason for the patterns in tourism is the fact that people are earning more money. Thanks to this disposable income, more people can afford to treat themselves to a holiday. I also feel there are now more incentives to go on holiday today, such as these â€Å"package†, or â€Å"all inclusive† holidays, as these save the consumer money. Fifty years ago, people used to travel 12 miles down the road to go on holiday, today they travel to the other side of the world. I feel this shows just how big these changes in the pattern of tourism are.

Case Study on a Child with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

London, a 10 year old student, displays an inability to complete work and tasks in a timely manner at home and school. Her obsessive thoughts and compulsions have led to her ostracization in the classroom and a strained relationship with her mother. Due to her compulsion to repeat activities ten times and inability to control her thoughts, a diagnosis of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder was established. London will be treated using the Cognitive Behavioral approach as it is recommended for children by the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry (Freeman et al., 2007). Heavy emphasis will be placed on the inclusion of London’s mother and grandmother in and out of therapy sessions. Over the course of treatment, London will engage in relaxation techniques, rational emotive therapy, and exposure and ritual prevention therapy. Before beginning any type of intervention, London will be evaluated with the Children’s Yale-Brown Obsession Compulsion Scale Severity Rating Scale to obtain a baseline. This scale will be utilized periodically throughout treatment to measure effectiveness and progress. Having established the starting point, London’s mother and grandmother will be asked to participate in a session. In addition to discussing the diagnosis and approving of the treatment plan, the importance of the family unit will be expressed. A discussion about ways to cope with London’s behaviors will be a primary objective as high levels of expressed emotion have aShow MoreRelatedObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay1627 Words   |  7 PagesSeveral mental health disorders are brought on due to both psychological and biological problems. Many of these are anxiety or behavioral disorders. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is one of these disorders that is an issue in both anxiety an d behavioral issues. 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